Table 3
Type 2 literature: potential in LIDs for mitigating climate change impacts
| LID | Methods and results | Declared advantages | Declared limitations | Ref. |
| GR | Vegetation abundance is inversely proportional to surface temperature. Seville climate prediction models suggest that 41% of buildings should implemented with GR. | Can alleviate the heat island effect | Different seasons and time scales need to be considered | [41] |
| GR | Two-stage stochastic programming model to optimize solar panel-GR placement. Mid-sized US city. Sensitivity analysis shows that the time scale and type of GR affects benefits. | Green roofs can optimize the power generation efficiency of Photovoltaic (PV) panels | Future climate uncertainties, and interaction between the practices. | [42] |
| GR | Green roofs have long-term economic and environmental benefits; however, Phosphorus emissions often exceed EPA’s freshwater standards | Directly sequester large amounts of carbon. Reduce CO2 concentrations nearby. Indirectly reduce CO2 emissions power production. | TN and TP leaching, and addition of fertilizers contribute to pollution. | [43] |
| BR | Life-cycle assessment to estimate total energy for construction and maintenance of a rain garden over a 50-year period. CO2 emissions are reduced by 30% | BR can provide carbon sequestration services and lower energy requirements. | Highly site specific. | [44] |
| PP | Controlled experiment of a sidewalk examining higher CO2 outflow (up to 5 from soil covered by impervious pavement. Sensitivity of soil respiration to changes in soil CO2 concentration and temperature is largely influenced by site-specific characteristics and regional climate factors. | Permeable pavements can enhance water and carbon exchange between soil and atmosphere, mitigate soil degradation, and maintain soil biological activity. | Higher installation costs for porous pavements. | [45] |
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