The cross-kingdom biological interactions driving carbon fate in mangrove ecosystems. Downward and upward arrows represent the pathways of carbon sequestration (e.g., carbon stabilization, burial and conversion into recalcitrant microbial residue) and emission (e.g., carbon decomposition and conversion into dissolved organic carbon), respectively. The ecosystem carbon balance is an outcome of these dynamic processes. The colors denote the different biological effects on carbon: green for plants, blue for fauna, brown for microorganisms, and red for viruses.