REVIEW

Zinc utilization rate in aqueous batteries: Regulation of interfacial thermodynamics and kinetics

Laboratory of Advanced Materials, Aqueous Battery Center, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis and Innovative Materials, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Shanghai Wusong Laboratory of Materials Science, College of Smart Materials and Future Energy, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China

^* Corresponding authors (emails: minwang@fudan.edu.cn (Min Wang); chaod@fudan.edu.cn (Dongliang Chao))

Received: 11 September 2025
Revised: 12 October 2025
Accepted: 13 October 2025

Abstract

Zinc-based aqueous batteries (ZABs) are promising candidates for grid-scale energy storage owing to zinc’s high theoretical capacity, inherent safety, environmental benignity, and low cost. However, their deployment is hindered by limited cycle life and insufficient energy density, primarily due to an inefficient zinc utilization rate (ZUR) and interfacial instability. Distinct from previous reviews that mainly survey material modifications, this work examines anode failure modes within a unified framework of interfacial thermodynamics and kinetics. We systematically elucidate how unfavorable thermodynamic barriers and kinetic limitations in ion transport and charge transfer synergistically trigger dendritic growth, corrosion, passivation, and mechanical pulverization, thereby constraining the ZUR. Building on these insights, we critically evaluate recent advances in electrolyte engineering, interfacial functionalization, and host design, with emphasis on their mechanisms for modulating nucleation thermodynamics and deposition kinetics. Finally, we propose actionable design principles that highlight the thermodynamic and kinetic balance as a prerequisite for durable, high-utilization zinc anodes, thereby translating fundamental insights into scalable, high-energy ZAB technologies.