Table 1
The actuation performance of conventional LCEs and human skeleton muscle regarding actuation strain, stress, response time (actuation and recovery), work density, and power density
| Materials | Actuation strain (%) | Actuation stress (MPa) | Actuation time (s) | Recovery time (s) | Work density (kJ m−3) | Power density (W kg−1) | References |
| Environment-driven LCE | 44 | 0.19 | 180 | 210 | 40 | 0.21 | 40 |
| CNT-LCE | 15 | 1.02 | 42 | 50 | 38 | 1.66 | 88 |
| Heating wire-LCE | 41 | 0.35 | 30 | 240 | 150 | 0.53 | 85 |
| Heating wire-LCE | 28 | 0.23 | 23 | 180 | 80 | 0.32 | 78 |
| Heating wire-LCE | 32 | 0.49 | 20 | 150 | 340 | 0.58 | 59 |
| Heating wire-LCE | 40 | 0.44 | 30 | 100 | 110 | 1.35 | 79 |
| LM-LCE | 50 | 0.15 | 15 | 125 | 180 | 0.54 | 82 |
| Human muscle | 50 | 0.35 | – | – | 40 | 50 | 103 |
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